@ryeager's link to http://provideyourown.com/2012/secret-arduino-voltmeter-measure-battery-voltage/#comment-71836 has this code for reading the Arduino's battery voltage:
long readVcc() {
// Read 1.1V reference against AVcc
// set the reference to Vcc and the measurement to the internal 1.1V reference
#if defined(__AVR_ATmega32U4__) || defined(__AVR_ATmega1280__) || defined(__AVR_ATmega2560__)
ADMUX = _BV(REFS0) | _BV(MUX4) | _BV(MUX3) | _BV(MUX2) | _BV(MUX1);
#elif defined (__AVR_ATtiny24__) || defined(__AVR_ATtiny44__) || defined(__AVR_ATtiny84__)
ADMUX = _BV(MUX5) | _BV(MUX0);
#elif defined (__AVR_ATtiny25__) || defined(__AVR_ATtiny45__) || defined(__AVR_ATtiny85__)
ADMUX = _BV(MUX3) | _BV(MUX2);
#else
ADMUX = _BV(REFS0) | _BV(MUX3) | _BV(MUX2) | _BV(MUX1);
#endif
delay(2); // Wait for Vref to settle
ADCSRA |= _BV(ADSC); // Start conversion
while (bit_is_set(ADCSRA,ADSC)); // measuring
uint8_t low = ADCL; // must read ADCL first - it then locks ADCH
uint8_t high = ADCH; // unlocks both
long result = (high<<8) | low;
result = 1125300L / result; // Calculate Vcc (in mV); 1125300 = 1.1*1023*1000
return result; // Vcc in millivolts
}
The trick here is that it measures its internal reference of 1.1V using the battery voltage, and then inverts it to calculate the unknown reference voltage.
The ADMUX magic in this code can enable other interesting ADC readings, such as differential measurements, and differential ADC measurements with gain, depending on the component and datasheet.